Orders of magnitude (temperature)

Range of minimum–maximum actual–theoretical temperatures

List of orders of magnitude for temperature
Factor	Multiple	Negative thermodynamic temperatures^[a]	Type
10⁻⁹	− nK	³⁹K bosonic atoms.^[1]^[3]	Artificial (A)
10⁻¹²	−100 pK	nuclear spin temperature of −750 pK using rhodium.^[4]	A
		Absolute zero ^[5]^[6]
0	N/A	Theoretical lowest temperature limit not realizable in practice because of the third law of thermodynamics ^[5]^[6]
		Positive temperatures
10⁻¹²	10s–100s pK	38 pK; matter-wave lensing of rubidium Bose–Einstein condensates ^[7] (BEC). ^[8] 450 ± 80 pK; lowest temperature sodium BEC gas ever observed in a laboratory. ^[9]	A
10⁻⁹	10–100 nK	50 nK: using quantum degeneracy of a rubidium BEC with a potassium Fermi gas: approximately 25000 (maximum) of 100000 molecules of fermionic ⁴⁰K ⁸⁷Rb ^[8] approximately 170 nK; first BEC product ^[10]	A
10⁻⁶	1μK	approximately 2μK; ^[11] first ²³Na BEC ^[12] Nuclear demagnetization Doppler-cooled refrigerants in laser cooling and magneto-optical traps
10⁻³	1–100s mK	Radio excitations 1.7 mK, temperature record for helium-3 (³He) / helium-4 (⁴He) dilution refrigeration, and the lowest temperature which may be sustained for arbitrarily long time with known techniques. 2 mK,^[13] first order transition - D state ^[14] superfluidic phase transition ³He ^[15] 2.6 ^[15] / 2.65 mK, second order transition - F state ^[14] superfluidic phase transition ³He ^[16]^[13]^[17] 10mK, operational temperature of CUORE detector ^[18] 60 mK adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic molecules 300 mK in evaporative cooling of ³He 700 mK, ³He / ⁴He mixtures begin phase separation 950 mK, melting point of helium at 2.5 megapascals of pressure. All 118 elements are solid at or below this temperature. microwave excitations
1	1 K	1.5 K, melting point of overbound helium 2.17 K, λ point of ⁴He / superfluid helium ^[19] < 2.725 K; ^[b]temperature indicated by modelling of carbon monoxide (CO) flux in a shell structure at the Boomerang Nebula; ^[c] this would indicate the COflux is the coldest natural environment known ^[20] Cooling to sub cosmic microwave background radiation temperature is by adiabatic expansion. ^[22] 2.725 K, cosmic microwave background 4.1 K, superconductivity point of mercury 4.22 K, boiling point of bound helium 5.19 K, critical temperature of helium 7.2 K, superconductivity point of lead 9.3 K, superconductivity point of niobium
10¹	10 K	Fermi melting point of valence electrons for superconductivity 14.01 K, melting point of bound hydrogen 20.28 K, boiling point of bound hydrogen 33 K, critical temperature of hydrogen 44 K mean on Pluto 53 K mean of Neptune 63 K, melting point of bound nitrogen 68 K mean of Uranus 77.35 K, boiling point of bound nitrogen 90.19 K, boiling point of bound oxygen 92 K, superconductivity point of Y–Ba–Cu–oxide (YBCO)
10²	100 K	Infrared excitations 134 K, highest-temperature superconductor at ambient pressure, mercury barium calcium copper oxide 165 K, glass point of supercooled water 184.0 K (–89.2 °C), coldest air recorded on Earth 192 K, Debye temperature of ice 194.7 K, sublimation temperature of dry ice 273.15 K (0 °C), melting point of bound water 273.16 K (0.01 °C), temperature of triple point of water c. 293 K, room temperature 373.15 K (100 °C), boiling point of bound water at sea level 647 K, critical point of superheated water 737.5 K, mean on Venus See detailed list below
10³	1-10 kK	Visible light excitations 500–2200 K on brown dwarfs (photosphere) 1043 K Curie temperature of iron (point at which iron transitions from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behavior and loses any permanent magnetism) 1170 K at wood fire 1300 K in lava flows, open flames 1500 K in basalt lava flows c. 1670 K at blue candle flame 1811 K, melting point of iron (lower for steel) 1830 K in Bunsen burner flame 1900 K at the Space Shuttle orbiter hull in 8 km/s dive 2022 K, boiling point of lead 2074 K, surface temperature of the coolest star, 2MASS J0523-1403 2230 K, Debye temperature of carbon 2320 K at open hydrogen flame 2150–2450 K at open hydrocarbon flame 2900 K, color temperature of halogen lamps, black-body radiation maximum at 1000 nm 3695 K, melting point of tungsten 3915 K, sublimation point of carbon 4231 K, melting point of hafnium carbide 4800 K, 10 MPa, triple point of carbon^[23] 5000 K, 12 GPa melting point of diamond^[24] 5100 K in cyanogen–dioxygen flame 5516 K at dicyanoacetylene (carbon subnitride)–ozone flame 5650 K at Earth's Inner Core Boundary 5772 K (Effective temperature (T_eff) ^[25] 5778 ^[26]^[27] (radiative temperature within vicinity of Earth) ^[28] 5780 T_eff ^[29] 5830 (estimated) ^[28]: the Sun 5933 K, boiling point of tungsten 6000 K, mean of the Universe 300,000 years after the Big Bang 7445 K, 850 GPa;^[30] 8750 K, 520 GPa;^[31] 5400 K, 220 GPa,^[32] critical point of diamond/solid III 7735 K, a monatomic ideal gas has one electron volt of kinetic energy 8000 K, routinely sustainable temperature in an analytical inductively coupled plasma 8801 K, 10.56 GPa^[33] 7020.5 K, 797 MPa,^[34] critical point of carbon Anionic sparks Ultraviolet excitations
10⁴	10-100s kK	10 kK on Sirius A 10–15 kK in mononitrogen recombination 15.5 kK, critical point of tungsten 25 kK, mean temperature of the universe 10,000 years after the Big Bang 26 kK on the white dwarf Sirius B 28 kK in record cationic lightning over Earth 29 kK on surface of Alnitak (easternmost star of Orion's belt) 4–8–40–160 kK^{[clarification needed]} on white dwarfs 30–400 kK on a planetary nebula's asymptotic giant helium star 36 kK boundary between inner and outer core within Jupiter 37 kK in proton–electron reactions 38 kK on Eta Carinae 46 kK on Wolf–Rayet star R136a1^[35] 50 kK at protostar (core) 54.5 kK on ON2 III(f*) star LH64-16^[36] >200 kK in Butterfly Nebula c. 300 kK at 17 meters from Little Boy's detonation 0.8 MK in solar wind Fermi boiling point of valence electrons X-ray excitations
10⁶	1–100s MK	Gamma ray excitations 1 MK inside old neutron stars, brown dwarfs, and at gravital deuterium fusion range 1–3–10 MK^{[clarification needed]} above Sun (corona) 2.4 MK at T Tauri stars and gravital lithium-6 fusion range 2.5 MK at red dwarfs and gravital protium fusion range 10 MK at orange dwarfs and gravital helium-3 fusion range 15.6 MK at Sun's core 10–30–100^{[clarification needed]} MK in stellar flares 20 MK in novae 23 MK, beryllium-7 fusion range 60 MK above Eta Carinae 85 MK (15 keV) in a magnetic confinement fusion plasma 200 MK at helium star and gravital helium-4 fusion range 230 MK, gravital carbon-12 fusion range 460 MK, gravital neon fusion–disproportionation range 5–530 MK in Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor's plasma 750 MK, gravital oxygen fusion range
10⁹	1–100s GK	1 GK, everything 100 seconds after the Big Bang 1.3–1.7 GK, gravital silicon fusion range 3 GK in electron–positron reactions 10 GK in supernovae 10 GK, everything 1 second after the Big Bang 0.1–1 TK at new neutron star 700 GK in quasars' accretion discs 740 GK, Hagedorn temperature or Fermi melting point of pions
10¹²	0.1–100s TK	0.5–1.2 TK, Fermi melting point of hadrons into quark–gluon plasma 3–5 TK in proton–antiproton reactions 3.6 TK, temperature at which matter doubles in mass (compared to its mass at 0 K) due to relativistic effects 5.5 TK, highest man-made temperature in thermal equilibrium as of 2015 (quark–gluon plasma from LHC collisions)^[37] 10 TK, 100 microseconds after the Big Bang 45–67 TK at collapsar of a gamma-ray burst 300–900 TK at proton–nickel conversions in the Tevatron's Main Injector^{[clarification needed]}
10¹⁵	0.1-1 PK	0.3–2.2 PK at proton–antiproton collisions 2.8 PK within an electroweak star
10¹⁸	EK
10²¹	ZK
10²⁴	1 YK	0.5–7 YK at ultra-high-energy cosmic ray collisions
10²⁷	1 RK	Everything 10⁻³⁵ seconds after the Big Bang
10³⁰	1 QK	Hagedorn temperature of strings
10³²	100 QK	142 QK, Planck temperature
10³³	1000 QK	Theory of everything excitations^{[citation needed]}
10²⁹⁰	10²⁶⁰ QK	Landau pole of quantum electrodynamics

Detailed list for 100 K to 1000K

Detailed list for 100 K to 1000 K^[d]
Kelvin	Degrees Celsius	Degrees Fahrenheit	Condition
100 K	−173.15 °C	−279.67 °F
133 K	−140 °C	−220 °F	Mean on Saturn^[38]
133 K to 163 K	−140 to −110 °C	−220 to −160 °F	Typical temperature of a whole-body cryotherapy chamber^[39]
163 K	−110 °C	−166 °F	Mean on Jupiter^[38]
165 K	−108 °C	−163 °F	Glass point of supercooled water (Debatable)^[40]
175.4 K	−97.8 °C	−144 °F	Coldest luminance temperature recorded on Earth (measured remotely by satellite), in Antarctica^[41]
183.7 K	−89.5 °C	−129.1 °F	Freezing/melting point of isopropyl alcohol^[42]
183.9 K	−89.2 °C	−128.6 °F	Coldest officially recorded air temperature on Earth, at Vostok Station, Antarctica on 1983-07-21 01:45 UTC
192 K	−81 °C	−114 °F	Debye temperature of ice
193 to 203 K	−80 to −70 °C	−112 to −94 °F	Typical temperature of a ULT freezer
194.6 K	−78.5 °C	−109.3 °F	Sublimation point of carbon dioxide (dry ice)
203.55 K	−69.6 °C	−93.3 °F	Coldest officially recorded air temperature in the Northern Hemisphere at Klinck AWS, Greenland (Denmark) on 1991-12-22^[43]
205.5 K	−67.7 °C	−89.9 °F	Coldest officially recorded air temperature on the Eurasian continent at Oymyakon, USSR on 6 February 1933^[44]^{[full citation needed]}
210 K	−63 °C	−80 °F	Mean on Mars
214.9 K	–58.3 °C	–72.9 °F	Coldest annual mean temperature on Earth, at Dome Argus, Antarctica^[45]^{[full citation needed]}
223.15 K	−50 °C	−58 °F	Mean on Earth during Snowball Earth period^[46]^{[full citation needed]} around 650 million years ago
224.8 K	−48.4 °C	−55.0 °F	Coldest temperature that water can remain a liquid (see Supercooling)
225 K	−48 °C	−55 °F	Freezing/melting point of cottonseed oil^[47]
233.15 K	−40 °C	−40 °F	Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales coincide Skin may freeze almost instantly at or below this temperature^[48]^{[full citation needed]}
234.3 K	−38.83 °C	−37.89 °F	Freezing/melting point of mercury
240.4 K	−32.8 °C	−27.0 °F	Coldest air temperature recorded in South America, at Sarmiento, Argentina on 1907-06-01^[49]
246 K	−27 °C	−17 °F	Approximate average yearly temperature on Mount Everest^[50]
249 K	–24 °C	–11 °F	Freezing/melting point of flax seed oil^[47]
249.3 K	–23.9 °C	–11.0 °F	Coldest air temperature recorded in Africa, at Ifrane, Morocco on 11 February 1935^[49]
250 K	–23 °C	–9 °F	Coldest air temperature recorded in Australia, at Charlotte Pass, New South Wales, Australia on 1994-06-29^[49]
255.37 K	–177⁄9 °C	0 °F	Coldest brine–ice solution found by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
255 K	–18 °C	0 °F	Freezing/melting point of almond oil^[47] Typical temperature of a household freezer^[51]
256 K	–17 °C	1 °F	Freezing/melting point of sunflower oil^[47]
256 K	–17 °C	2 °F	Freezing/melting point of safflower oil^[47]
257 K	–16 °C	3 °F	Freezing/melting point of soybean oil^[47]^{[full citation needed]}
262 K	−11 °C	12 °F	Freezing/melting point of corn oil^[47]^{[full citation needed]}
263.15 K	–10 °C	14 °F	Freezing/melting point of canola oil^[47] Freezing/melting point of grape seed oil^[47]^{[full citation needed]}
265 K	–8 °C	18 °F	White frost can form below this temperature Freezing/melting point of hemp seed oil^[47]^{[full citation needed]}
265.8 K	–7.2 °C	19 °F	Freezing/melting point of bromine
267 K	–6 °C	21 °F	Freezing/melting point of olive oil^[47] Freezing/melting point of sesame oil^[47]
271.15 K	−2 °C	28.4 °F	Average freezing/melting point of oceans, the salinity is around 3.47%.^[52]^[53]
273.14 K	-0.01 °C	31.98 °F	Maximum temperature of an object causing frostbite
273.15 K	0.00 °C	32.00 °F	Freezing/melting point of fresh water (at 1 atm pressure)
273.16 K	0.01 °C	32.02 °F	Triple point of fresh water
276 K	3 °C	37 °F	Freezing/melting point of peanut oil^[54]
277 K	3.85 °C	39 °F	Typical temperature of a household refrigerator
277.13 K	3.98 °C	39.16 °F	Water is at maximum density^[55]^{[full citation needed]}
279.8 K	6.67 °C	44 °F	Threshold of skin numbness if skin reaches this temperature
283.2 K	10 °C	50 °F	Minimum temperature for most plant growth (see Growing degree-day)
286.9 K	12.7 °C	54.9 °F	Coldest body temperature of a human that survived accidental hypothermia (a 2-year-old boy in Racławice, Poland, on November 30, 2014)^[56]^[57]
287.6 K	14.44 °C	58 °F	Cold threshold of pain if skin reaches this temperature
288 K	15 °C	59 °F	Mean on Earth
291.6 K	18.4 °C	65.1 °F	Hottest temperature in Antarctica, recorded on 2020 February 6 at the Esperanza Base^[58]
294 K	21 °C	70 °F	Commonly defined value for room temperature
296 K	23 °C	73 °F	Mean on Earth during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum^[59] about 55.8 million years ago^{[full citation needed]}
297 K	24 °C	75 °F	Melting/freezing point of palm kernel oil^[47]
298 K	25 °C	77 °F	Melting/freezing point of coconut oil^[47]
300 K	27 °C	81 °F	Thermoneutral temperature of an unclothed human at rest^[60]^[61] Estimated melting/freezing point of francium
302.9 K	29.8 °C	85.6 °F	Melting/freezing point of gallium
303.15 K	30 °C	86 °F	The rate of plant growth is typically no greater above this temperature than at this temperature. (see Growing degree-day)
304 K	31 °C	88 °F	Melting/freezing point of butter, critical point for carbon dioxide
307 K	34 °C	93 °F	Autoignition temperature of white phosphorus
307.6 K	34.4 °C	93.9 °F	Hottest annual mean temperature on Earth, at Dallol, Ethiopia^[45]
308 K	35 °C	95 °F	Hypothermic body temperature for humans (see Hypothermia) Warmest sea measured, at the Red Sea Melting/freezing point of palm oil^[47]
309.5 K	36.4 °C	97.5 °F	Average body temperature for a human^[62]^{[full citation needed]}
311.03 K	37.87 °C	100.2 °F	Beginnings of a fever for humans
311.8 K	38.6 °C	101.5 °F	Average body temperature for a cat^[63]^{[full citation needed]}
313.15 K	40 °C	104 °F	Maximum standard temperature recommended for hot tub users^[64]^{[full citation needed]}
315 K	42 °C	108 °F	Usually fatal human fever
317.6 K	44.44 °C	112 °F	Hot threshold of pain if skin reaches this temperature
319.7 K	46.5 °C	115.7 °F	Highest human fever survived (Willie Jones)^[65]^{[full citation needed]}
321.45 K	48.3 °C	119 °F	World's hottest air temperature recorded while raining, at Imperial, California, USA on July 24, 2018^[66]
322.1 K	48.9 °C	120.0 °F	Hottest air temperature recorded in South America, at Rivadavia, Argentina on 1905-12-11^[49] Maximum safe temperature for hot water according to numeric U.S. plumbing codes^[67] Water will cause a second-degree burn after 8 minutes and a third-degree burn after 10 minutes^[67]
323.14 K	49.99 °C	121.99 °F	Half-way point between freezing and boiling
323.9 K	50.7 °C	123.3 °F	Hottest air temperature recorded in the Southern Hemisphere, at Oodnadatta, Australia on 1960-02-01^[49]
329.87 K	56.7 °C	134.1 °F	Hottest measured air temperature on Earth, in Death Valley at Furnace Creek, Inyo County, California, United States of America on 10 July 1913.^[68]
333.15 K	60 °C	140 °F	Water will cause a second-degree burn in 3 seconds and a third-degree burn in 5 seconds^[67] Average temperature of a hair dryer
336 K	63 °C	145.4 °F	Milk pasteurization
342 K	69 °C	157 °F	Boiling point of water on the summit of Mount Everest^[69]^{[full citation needed]}
343.15 K	70 °C	158 °F	Food is well done Hot springs at which some bacteria thrive^[70]
350 K	77 °C	170 °F	Poaching of food
351.52 K	78.37 °C	173.07 °F	Boiling point of ethanol
353.15 K	80 °C	176 °F	Average temperature of a sauna
355 K	82 °C	180 °F	Recommended final rinse temperature in industrial-grade commercial dishwashers^[71]^{[full citation needed]}
355.6 K	82.4 °C	180.3 °F	Boiling point of isopropyl alcohol^[42]
366 K	93 °C	200 °F	Simmering of food
367 K	94 °C	201 °F	Hottest ground temperature recorded on Earth at Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, USA on 1972-07-15^[72]^{[full citation needed]}
371 K	98 °C	209 °F	Freezing/melting point of sodium
373.13 K	99.98 °C	211.97 °F	Boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure (see Celsius)
380 K	107 °C	225 °F	Smoke point of raw safflower oil Syrup^[vague] is concentrated to 75% sugar
388 K	115 °C	239 °F	Melting/freezing point of sulfur
400 K	127 °C	260 °F	Concorde nose tip during supersonic flight Coldest known stars in space (approximate temperature)^[73]^{[full citation needed]}
433.15 K	160 °C	320 °F	Syrup^[vague] is concentrated to 100% sugar Sucrose (table sugar) caramelizes^{[full citation needed]}
450 K	177 °C	350 °F	Mean on Mercury Smoke point of butter Deep frying
453.15 K	180 °C	356 °F	Popcorn pops
483 K	210 °C	410 °F	Autoignition (kindling) point of diesel fuel
491 K	218 °C	425 °F	Kindling point of paper
519 K	246 °C	475 °F	Kindling point of automotive gasoline
522 K	249 °C	480 °F	Kindling point of jet fuel (Jet A/Jet A-1)^[74]^{[full citation needed]}
525 K	252 °C	485 °F	Smoke point of milkfat Kindling point of jet fuel (Jet B)^[74]
538 K	265 °C	510 °F	Smoke point of refined safflower oil
574.5875 K	301.4375 °C	574.5875 °F	Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales coincide
600.65 K	327.5 °C	621.5 °F	Melting/freezing point of lead
647 K	374 °C	705 °F	Critical point of superheated water
693 K	419 °C	787 °F	Melting/freezing point of zinc
723 K	450 °C	842 °F	Kindling point of aviation gasoline^[74]
738 K	465 °C	870 °F	Mean on Venus
749 K	476 °C	889 °F	Kindling point of magnesium
773.15 K	500 °C	932 °F	Oven on self-cleaning mode
798 K	525 °C	977 °F	Draper point (the point at which nearly all objects start to glow dim red)^[75]
858 K	585 °C	1085 °F	Kindling point of hydrogen^[76]
933.47 K	660.32 °C	1220.58 °F	Melting/freezing point of aluminium
1000 K	726.85 °C	1340.33 °F

SI multiples

SI multiples of kelvin (K)
Submultiples			Multiples
Value	SI symbol	Name	Value	SI symbol	Name
10⁻¹ K	dK	decikelvin	10¹ K	daK	decakelvin
10⁻² K	cK	centikelvin	10² K	hK	hectokelvin
10⁻³ K	mK	millikelvin	10³ K	kK	kilokelvin
10⁻⁶ K	μK	microkelvin	10⁶ K	MK	megakelvin
10⁻⁹ K	nK	nanokelvin	10⁹ K	GK	gigakelvin
10⁻¹² K	pK	picokelvin	10¹² K	TK	terakelvin
10⁻¹⁵ K	fK	femtokelvin	10¹⁵ K	PK	petakelvin
10⁻¹⁸ K	aK	attokelvin	10¹⁸ K	EK	exakelvin
10⁻²¹ K	zK	zeptokelvin	10²¹ K	ZK	zettakelvin
10⁻²⁴ K	yK	yoctokelvin	10²⁴ K	YK	yottakelvin
10⁻²⁷ K	rK	rontokelvin	10²⁷ K	RK	ronnakelvin
10⁻³⁰ K	qK	quectokelvin	10³⁰ K	QK	quettakelvin

Notes

^ Such a temperature, while negative as a scalar value, correspond to thermodynamic states hotter than every positive temperature^[1] – even infinite temperature^[2]
^
- requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T _bb).
- This is because the antenna temperature measured through our “on source–off source” observations is an excess over T_bb and is equal to I(ON) - I(OFF)
- with I(ON) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_bb) e^-τ) + B(T_ex)(1 - e^-τ)],
- and I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k)B(T_bb),
- where τ is the optical depth, and B is the Planck blackbody function.
- Hence, if T_ex < T_bb, and τ >> 1, then I(ON) - I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_ex) - B(T_bb)] < 0. ^[20]
^ The concept: "boomerang" is a belonging/possession of native tribes of Australia. ^[21]
^ Most ordinary human activity takes place at temperatures of this order of magnitude. Circumstances where water naturally occurs in liquid form are shown in light grey.

References

^ ^a ^b Braun, S.; Ronzheimer, J. P.; Schreiber, M.; Hodgman, S. S.; Rom, T.; Bloch, I.; Schneider, U. (4 January 2013). "Negative Absolute Temperature for Motional Degrees of Freedom". Science. 339 (6115): 52–55. arXiv:1211.0545. Bibcode:2013Sci...339...52B. doi:10.1126/science.1227831. PMID 23288533 – via Zeeya Merali: doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.12146.
^ "Negative Absolute Temperatures Does that mean that temperature is circular?". Quantum Optics Group. Ludwig-Maximilians Universität Munich. Retrieved 20 February 2025. How do you measure temperature?...we take images of our atoms with a CCD camera...We compare the distribution of our atoms with the theoretically expected distributions. The distribution that fits best gives us the temperature of the atoms.
^ "A temperature below absolute zero". www.mpg.de. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. 4 January 2013. Archived from the original on 9 March 2025. Retrieved 18 February 2025.
^ Lounasmaa, Olli V.; Hakonen, Pertti; Nummila, Kaj; Vuorinen, Reko; Martikainen, Juha (2 February 1994). "Negative nanokelvin temperature in the nuclear spin systems of silver and rhodium metals". Physica B: Condensed Matter. 194-196 Part 1: 291–292. Bibcode:1994PhyB..194..291L. doi:10.1016/0921-4526(94)90475-8 – via Abraham & Penrose (November 25, 2016) www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~oliver/PREpaper.pdf.
^ ^a ^b Barton, Allan F.M. (1997). "5 Thermodynamic Matter". States of Matter. Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 9780750304184. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.
^ ^a ^b Angelo Jnr., Joseph A. (April 2020). "Very Cold Matter". Extreme States of Matter. New York: Infobase. p. 112. ISBN 9781438195834. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.
^ Deppner, Christian; Herr, Waldemar; Cornelius, Merle; Stromberger, Peter; Sternke, Tammo; Grzeschik, Christoph; Grote, Alexander; Rudolph, Jan; Herrmann, Sven; Krutzik, Markus; Wenzlawski, André (2021-08-30). "Collective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics". Physical Review Letters. 127 (10): 100401. Bibcode:2021PhRvL.127j0401D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 34533345. S2CID 237396804.
^ ^a ^b De Marco, Luigi; Valtolina, Giacomo; Matsuda, Kyle; Tobias, William G.; Covey, Jacob P.; Ye, Jun (17 January 2019). "A degenerate Fermi gas of polar molecules". SCIENCE. 363 (6429): 853–856. doi:10.1126/science.aau7230. PMID 30655445.
^ Leanhardt, A. E.; Pasquini, T. A.; Saba, M.; Schirotzek, A.; Shin, Y.; Kielpinski, D.; Pritchard, D. E.; Ketterle, W. (12 September 2003). "Cooling Bose-Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin". Science. 301 (5639). MIT: 1513–1515. doi:10.1126/science.1088827. PMID 12970559 – via Isabella Dumé Physics World: web.archive.org/web/20120402094614/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/18214.
^ Anderson, M. H.; Ensher, J. R.; Matthews, M. R.; Wieman, C. E.; Cornell, E. A. (14 July 1995). "Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor". SCIENCE. 269 (5221). Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA): Abstract. doi:10.1126/science.269.5221.198 – via www.cibtech.org/J-PHYSICS-MATHEMATICAL-SCIENCES/PUBLICATIONS/2015/Vol-5-NO-3/01-JPMS-001-(SEP)-THOMAS-CRITICAL.pdf (INTRODUCTION) & iask.ai/?mode=question&q=what+was+the+first+Bose-Einstein+Condensation+made%2Fcreated (ai verified: bingweb.binghamton.edu/~suzuki/ModernPhysics/31_BEC_in_alkali_atoms.pdf).
^ Davis, K. B.; Mewes, M. -O.; Andrews, M. R.; van Druten, N. J.; Durfee, D. S.; Kurn, D. M.; Ketterle, W. (27 November 1995). "Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Gas of Sodium Atoms". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (3969). aps.org: 3969–3973. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.3969 – via Silke Ospelkaus-Schwarzer ediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de/bitstream/ediss/1637/1/silke_ospelkaus_dissertation.pdf p.1.
^ Ospelkaus-Schwarzer, Silke (21 December 2006). "Chapter 1 Introduction". Quantum Degenerate Fermi-Bose Mixtures of ⁴⁰K and ⁸⁷Rb in 3D Optical Lattices (PDF). Hamburg: uni-hamburg.de – via jila.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/2019-05/goldwin_thesis.pdf [JM Goldwin 2005 University of Colorado-x-Table 3.1/95: thesis director: Deborah S. Jin].
^ ^a ^b Enss, Christian; Hunklinger, Siegfried (2005). "Superfluid ³HE". Low-temperature physics. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/3-540-26619-4_4. ISBN 3-540-23164-1. Retrieved 1 April 2025. superfluid ³He was finally discovered in 1971. Osheroff, Richardson and Lee observed clear indications for two phase transitions in ³He at temperatures around 2mK" (sic) "in experiments using a Pomeranchuk cell
^ ^a ^b Soda, Toshio; Yamazaki, Koji (February 1974). "On the Superfluid Phases of Liquid ³He". Progress of Theoretical Physics. 51 (2): Abstract. doi:10.1143/PTP.51.327 – via iask.ai/?mode=question&options[detail_level]=detailed&q=Osheroff+DD%2C+Gully+WJ%2C+Richardson+RC%2C+Lee+DM+1972.+Phys.+Rev.+Lett.+29%3A920 using W.P. Halperin Superfluid ³He in Aerogel Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics Volume 10, 2019 search: iask.ai: "2. Osheroff DD, Gully WJ, Richardson RC, Lee DM 1972. Phys. Rev. Lett. 29:920".
^ ^a ^b Lounasmaa, O.V. (October 1974). "³HE-Two Superfluid Phases" (PDF). europhysics news BULLETIN OF THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY. 5 (10). Helsinki University of Technology.
^ Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (3 April 1972). "Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He³". Phys. Rev. Lett. 28 (885). Cornell University. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 – via Enss & Hunklinger. indicate the existence of a new phase in solid He³ below 2.7 mK of a fundamentally different nature
^ Jin, D.S.; Regal, C.C. (18 April 2008). "Fermi Gas Experiments". In Inguscio, M.; Ketterle, W.; Salomon, C. (eds.). Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" COURSE CLXIV Ultra-cold Fermi Gases. AMSTERDAM OXFORD TOKYO WASHINGTON DC: IOS Press & Società Italiana di Fisica. p. 3. ISBN 1607503182. Retrieved 1 April 2025. [13]-p.47:OSHEROFF, RICHARDSON, LEE (1972)
^ Ouellet, Jonathan (14 October 2014). "The Coldest Cubic Meter in the Known Universe". arXiv:1410.1560.
^ Allen and Misener; Kapitza (1938). Regal, C.A.; Jin, D.S. (2007). "Introduction". Experimental Realization of the BCS-BEC Crossover with a Fermi Gas of Atoms. Advances In Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics. Vol. 54. JILA: ELSEVIER. pp. 1–79. doi:10.1016/S1049-250X(06)54001-7. ISBN 978-0-12-003854-1.
^ ^a ^b Sahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997). "The Boomerang Nebula: The Coolest Region of the Universe?". The Astrophysical Journal. 487 (2): L155 – L159. Bibcode:1997ApJ...487L.155S. doi:10.1086/310897. hdl:2014/22450. L156: We have measured a 9 mK upper limit (3 σ) on continuum emission at 89.2 and 145.6 GHz toward the Boomerang Nebula, which is much smaller than the negative temperatures seen in the CO and ¹³CO J 1–0 spectra, so these must result from absorption of the microwave background, requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T_bb). 3. A TWO–SHELL MODEL In shell 2 (R₁,_o < r < R₂), T_kin < 2.8 K
^ "Defining Moments in Australian History Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia". www.nma.gov.au. Lawson Crescent Acton Peninsula, Canberra: National Museum Australia. Retrieved 29 March 2025. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people should be aware this website contains images, voices and names of people who have died.
^ Sahai, R.; Vlemmings, W. H. T.; Huggins, P.J.; Nyman, L.-Å.; Gonidakis, I. (10 November 2013). "ALMA OBSERVATIONS OF THE COLDEST PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE: THE BOOMERANG NEBULA". The Astrophysical Journal. 777 (92): 1. arXiv:1308.4360. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/777/2/92.
^ Savvatimskii, Aleksandr I (2003). "Melting point of graphite and liquid carbon (Concerning the paper 'Experimental investigation of the thermal properties of carbon at high temperatures and moderate pressures' by E. I. Asinovskii, A. V. Kirillin, and A. V. Kostanovskii)". Physics-Uspekhi. 46 (12): 1295–1303. Bibcode:2003PhyU...46.1295S. doi:10.1070/PU2003v046n12ABEH001699. S2CID 250746507.
^ Yang, C. C.; Li, S. (2008). "Size-Dependent Temperature-Pressure Phase Diagram of Carbon". Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 112 (5): 1423–1426. doi:10.1021/jp076049+.
^ David R. Williams (9 May 2024). "Solar Atmosphere". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NSSDCA, Mail Code 690.1 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, MD 20771. Archived from the original on 6 Aug 2024. Retrieved 1 April 2025.
^ Mullen, P. D.; Woods, C. N. (8 December 2015). "Determining the Suns Surface Temperature With iPhone" (PDF). Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
^ Abdelsalam, Tarek I.; Tian, Zhao; Robinson, Adam (1 May 2023). "Directly irradiated liquid metal film in an ultra-high temperature solar cavity receiver. Part 1: Concepts and a quasi-steady-state analysis". Solar Energy. 255: 2.1. Solar concentration. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.03.047.
^ ^a ^b Morozov, A N (2017). "Скрипкин Алексей Владимирович Calculation of the Intensity of Physical Time Fluctuations Using the Standard Solar Model and its Comparison with the Results of Experimental Measurements". IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics: Conf. Series (9th Russian National Conference on Irreversible Processes in Nature and Technics (9RNC-IPNT) 25–27 January 2017). 918 (012008). Bauman Moscow State Technical University: IOP Publishing Ltd: 3. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations during the production of entropy by irreversible processes (16): p.4 ("5830") 6. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations due to the Earth's thermal radiation (28): p.8. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/918/1/012008.
^ Chitta, L. P.; Smitha, H. N.; Solanki, S. K. (30 April 2020). "Solar Photosphere". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Physics. Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research: Oxford University Press and the American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 1 April 2025.
^ Correa, A. A.; Bonev, S. A.; Galli, G. (2006). "Carbon under extreme conditions: Phase boundaries and electronic properties from first-principles theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (5): 1204–1208. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1204C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510489103. PMC 1345714. PMID 16432191.
^ Wang, Xiaofei; Scandolo, Sandro; Car, Roberto (2005). "Carbon Phase Diagram from Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 95 (18): 185701. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95r5701W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.185701. PMID 16383918. S2CID 15373344.
^ Gerald I. Kerley and Lalit Chhabildas, "Multicomponent-Multiphase Equation of State for Carbon", Sandia National Laboratories (2001)
^ Glosli, James; Ree, Francis (1999). "Liquid-Liquid Phase Transformation in Carbon". Physical Review Letters. 82 (23): 4659–4662. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.4659G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4659.
^ Man Chai Chang; Ryong, Ryoo; Mu Shik Jhon (1985). "Thermodynamic properties of liquid carbon". Carbon. 23 (5): 481–485. Bibcode:1985Carbo..23..481M. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(85)90083-1.
^ Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; De Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J.; Maíz Apellániz, Jesus; Puls, Joachim; Vink, Jorick S. (2020). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801.
^ Massey, Philip; Bresolin, Fabio; Kudritzki, Rolf P.; Puls, Joachim; Pauldrach, A. W. A. (2004). "The Physical Properties and Effective Temperature Scale of O-Type Stars as a Function of Metallicity. I. A Sample of 20 Stars in the Magellanic Clouds". The Astrophysical Journal. 608 (2): 1001–1027. arXiv:astro-ph/0402633. Bibcode:2004ApJ...608.1001M. doi:10.1086/420766. S2CID 119373878.
^ "Highest man-made temperature". Guinness World Records. Jim Pattison Group. Retrieved 16 August 2015.
^ ^a ^b "Solar System Temperatures - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov. 15 February 2022. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
^ "Whole-Body Cryotherapy FAQs". Coyne Medical. 9 December 2020. Retrieved 2023-10-11.
^ Jestin Baby Mandumpal (2017). A Journey Through Water: A Scientific Exploration of The Most Anomalous Liquid on Earth. Bentham Science Publishers. p. 148. ISBN 9781681084237.
^ "New study explains Antarctica's coldest temperature". National Snow and Ice Data Center. 25 June 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
^ ^a ^b National Research Council (US) Committee on Toxicology (1984). Read "Emergency and Continuous Exposure Limits for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 2" at NAP.edu. doi:10.17226/690. ISBN 978-0-309-07774-3. PMID 25032441.
^ "Northern Hemisphere: Lowest Temperature". World Weather & Climate Extremes Archive. World Meteorological Organization. 21 June 2023. Retrieved 2024-01-06.
^ Weather Underground – Coldest Places on Earth
^ ^a ^b http://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/ Current Results – Worlds Hottest and Coldest Places
^ 'Snowball Earth' Scenario Plunged Our Planet Into Million-Year Winters
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Veganbaking.net – Fat and Oil Melt Point Temperatures http://www.veganbaking.net/tools/fat-and-oil-melt-point-temperatures
^ http://www.weathernotebook.org/transcripts/2001/02/07.html Archived 2013-11-06 at the Wayback Machine The Weather Notebook – 40 Below
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e http://wmo.asu.edu/ ASU World Meteorological Organization – Global Weather & Climate Extremes
^ "Temperature Everest Summit". Himalayan Wonders. 30 July 2014. Retrieved 2023-10-11. (Temperature calculated by averaging monthly temperatures given in graph)
^ "Freezing and food safety". USDA. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
^ "Can the ocean freeze? Ocean water freezes at a lower temperature than freshwater". NOAA. Archived from the original on July 6, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2019.
^ Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). Marine Geochemistry. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-34907-6.
^ http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03265.htm Archived 2015-02-26 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Dept. of Energy – Office of Science – Oils and Low Temperature
^ http://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/Limnology/mixing.html Archived 2018-08-23 at the Wayback Machine College of Environmental Science and Forestry – Thermal Stratification
^ Agence France Presse (2014-12-05). "Doctors hail miracle as toddler survives freezing conditions in pyjamas". The Guardian. Warsaw. Retrieved 2015-02-03.
^ "2-letni Adaś wyprowadzony z hipotermii. Światowe media donoszą o cudownym dziecku z Polski". Polskie Radio. 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2015-02-03.
^ "New record for Antarctic continent reported". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
^ https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-hottest-earths-ever-been What's the hottest Earth's ever been?
^ Rintamäki, Hannu (2007). "Human responses to cold". Alaska Medicine. 49 (2 Suppl): 29–31. PMID 17929604.
^ https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/cold-out-why-you-need-to-wear-a-hat Harvard Health Publishing - Cold out? Why you need to wear a hat!
^ Harvard Health Publishing - Time to redefine normal body temperature? https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/time-to-redefine-normal-body-temperature-2020031319173
^ http://people.rit.edu/hmm5837/320/project2/page4.html Archived 2013-11-12 at the Wayback Machine Rochester Institute for Technology – Random Cat Facts
^ http://www.jacuzzi.com/hot-tubs/hot-tub-blog/ideal-hot-tub-water-temperature/ Archived 2017-01-26 at the Wayback Machine. Finding The Ideal Hot Tub Temperature. Jacuzzi
^ http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/clock.html Biological Rhythums
^ "Hottest Rain on Record? Rain Falls at 119°F in Imperial, California". www.wunderground.com. Retrieved 2024-07-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Antiscald Inc". Archived from the original on 2014-09-13. Retrieved 2014-09-12.
^ "Highest recorded temperature". Guinness World Records. 10 July 1913. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
^ http://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/chemistry-terms/boiling-info.htm HowStuffWorks – Boiling
^ Seckbach, Joseph; et al. (2013). Polyextremophiles – life under multiple forms of stress. Dordrecht: Springer. preface. ISBN 978-94-007-6487-3.
^ "Residential Dishwashers". National Sanitation Foundation. Retrieved on 26 May 2017. http://www.nsf.org/consumer-resources/health-and-safety-tips/home-product-appliance-tips/sanitizing-dishwasher/
^ http://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/weather-and-climate.htm National Park Service – Death Valley – Weather and Climate
^ http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/research/Stars.shtml University of Hawaii – Institute for Astronomy
^ ^a ^b ^c International Fire Training Centre: Firefighter initial: aviation fuels and fuel tanks Archived 2018-02-19 at the Wayback Machine - International Fire Training Centre
^ Draper, John William (1847). "On the production of light by heat". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 30 (202). Taylor & Francis: 345–359. doi:10.1080/14786444708647190.
^ "Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen" (PDF). Health and Safety Executive. 2008.

External links

Online Temperature Conversion

[3] Such a temperature, while negative as a scalar value, correspond to thermodynamic states hotter than every positive temperature^[1] – even infinite temperature^[2]

[22] 
requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T _bb).

This is because the antenna temperature measured through our “on source–off source” observations is an excess over T_bb and is equal to I(ON) - I(OFF)

with I(ON) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_bb) e^-τ) + B(T_ex)(1 - e^-τ)],

and I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k)B(T_bb),

where τ is the optical depth, and B is the Planck blackbody function.

Hence, if T_ex < T_bb, and τ >> 1, then I(ON) - I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_ex) - B(T_bb)] < 0. ^[20]

[3] requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T _bb).

[4] This is because the antenna temperature measured through our “on source–off source” observations is an excess over T_bb and is equal to I(ON) - I(OFF)

[5] with I(ON) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_bb) e^-τ) + B(T_ex)(1 - e^-τ)],

[6] I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k)B(T_bb),

[7] where τ is the optical depth, and B is the Planck blackbody function.

[8] Hence, if T_ex < T_bb, and τ >> 1, then I(ON) - I(OFF) $=$ (λ²/2k) [B(T_ex) - B(T_bb)] < 0. ^[20]

[24] The concept: "boomerang" is a belonging/possession of native tribes of Australia. ^[21]

[41] Most ordinary human activity takes place at temperatures of this order of magnitude. Circumstances where water naturally occurs in liquid form are shown in light grey.

[Braun2013-1] Braun, S.; Ronzheimer, J. P.; Schreiber, M.; Hodgman, S. S.; Rom, T.; Bloch, I.; Schneider, U. (4 January 2013). "Negative Absolute Temperature for Motional Degrees of Freedom". Science. 339 (6115): 52–55. arXiv:1211.0545. Bibcode:2013Sci...339...52B. doi:10.1126/science.1227831. PMID 23288533 – via Zeeya Merali: doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.12146.

[qmunich-2] "Negative Absolute Temperatures Does that mean that temperature is circular?". Quantum Optics Group. Ludwig-Maximilians Universität Munich. Retrieved 20 February 2025. How do you measure temperature?...we take images of our atoms with a CCD camera...We compare the distribution of our atoms with the theoretically expected distributions. The distribution that fits best gives us the temperature of the atoms.

[4] "A temperature below absolute zero". www.mpg.de. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. 4 January 2013. Archived from the original on 9 March 2025. Retrieved 18 February 2025.

[5] Lounasmaa, Olli V.; Hakonen, Pertti; Nummila, Kaj; Vuorinen, Reko; Martikainen, Juha (2 February 1994). "Negative nanokelvin temperature in the nuclear spin systems of silver and rhodium metals". Physica B: Condensed Matter. 194-196 Part 1: 291–292. Bibcode:1994PhyB..194..291L. doi:10.1016/0921-4526(94)90475-8 – via Abraham & Penrose (November 25, 2016) www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~oliver/PREpaper.pdf.

[Barton-6] Barton, Allan F.M. (1997). "5 Thermodynamic Matter". States of Matter. Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 9780750304184. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.

[Angelo-7] Angelo Jnr., Joseph A. (April 2020). "Very Cold Matter". Extreme States of Matter. New York: Infobase. p. 112. ISBN 9781438195834. Retrieved 17 February 2025 – via Google Books.

[8] Deppner, Christian; Herr, Waldemar; Cornelius, Merle; Stromberger, Peter; Sternke, Tammo; Grzeschik, Christoph; Grote, Alexander; Rudolph, Jan; Herrmann, Sven; Krutzik, Markus; Wenzlawski, André (2021-08-30). "Collective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics". Physical Review Letters. 127 (10): 100401. Bibcode:2021PhRvL.127j0401D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 34533345. S2CID 237396804.

[DeMarco-9] De Marco, Luigi; Valtolina, Giacomo; Matsuda, Kyle; Tobias, William G.; Covey, Jacob P.; Ye, Jun (17 January 2019). "A degenerate Fermi gas of polar molecules". SCIENCE. 363 (6429): 853–856. doi:10.1126/science.aau7230. PMID 30655445.

[10] Leanhardt, A. E.; Pasquini, T. A.; Saba, M.; Schirotzek, A.; Shin, Y.; Kielpinski, D.; Pritchard, D. E.; Ketterle, W. (12 September 2003). "Cooling Bose-Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin". Science. 301 (5639). MIT: 1513–1515. doi:10.1126/science.1088827. PMID 12970559 – via Isabella Dumé Physics World: web.archive.org/web/20120402094614/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/18214.

[11] Anderson, M. H.; Ensher, J. R.; Matthews, M. R.; Wieman, C. E.; Cornell, E. A. (14 July 1995). "Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor". SCIENCE. 269 (5221). Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA): Abstract. doi:10.1126/science.269.5221.198 – via www.cibtech.org/J-PHYSICS-MATHEMATICAL-SCIENCES/PUBLICATIONS/2015/Vol-5-NO-3/01-JPMS-001-(SEP)-THOMAS-CRITICAL.pdf (INTRODUCTION) & iask.ai/?mode=question&q=what+was+the+first+Bose-Einstein+Condensation+made%2Fcreated (ai verified: bingweb.binghamton.edu/~suzuki/ModernPhysics/31_BEC_in_alkali_atoms.pdf).

[12] Davis, K. B.; Mewes, M. -O.; Andrews, M. R.; van Druten, N. J.; Durfee, D. S.; Kurn, D. M.; Ketterle, W. (27 November 1995). "Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Gas of Sodium Atoms". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (3969). aps.org: 3969–3973. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.3969 – via Silke Ospelkaus-Schwarzer ediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de/bitstream/ediss/1637/1/silke_ospelkaus_dissertation.pdf p.1.

[13] Ospelkaus-Schwarzer, Silke (21 December 2006). "Chapter 1 Introduction". Quantum Degenerate Fermi-Bose Mixtures of ⁴⁰K and ⁸⁷Rb in 3D Optical Lattices (PDF). Hamburg: uni-hamburg.de – via jila.colorado.edu/sites/default/files/2019-05/goldwin_thesis.pdf [JM Goldwin 2005 University of Colorado-x-Table 3.1/95: thesis director: Deborah S. Jin].

[10.10073-540-26619-4_4-14] Enss, Christian; Hunklinger, Siegfried (2005). "Superfluid ³HE". Low-temperature physics. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/3-540-26619-4_4. ISBN 3-540-23164-1. Retrieved 1 April 2025. superfluid ³He was finally discovered in 1971. Osheroff, Richardson and Lee observed clear indications for two phase transitions in ³He at temperatures around 2mK" (sic) "in experiments using a Pomeranchuk cell

[10.1143PTP.51.327-15] Soda, Toshio; Yamazaki, Koji (February 1974). "On the Superfluid Phases of Liquid ³He". Progress of Theoretical Physics. 51 (2): Abstract. doi:10.1143/PTP.51.327 – via iask.ai/?mode=question&options[detail_level]=detailed&q=Osheroff+DD%2C+Gully+WJ%2C+Richardson+RC%2C+Lee+DM+1972.+Phys.+Rev.+Lett.+29%3A920 using W.P. Halperin Superfluid ³He in Aerogel Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics Volume 10, 2019 search: iask.ai: "2. Osheroff DD, Gully WJ, Richardson RC, Lee DM 1972. Phys. Rev. Lett. 29:920".

[epn19740510p1-16] Lounasmaa, O.V. (October 1974). "³HE-Two Superfluid Phases" (PDF). europhysics news BULLETIN OF THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY. 5 (10). Helsinki University of Technology.

[17] Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (3 April 1972). "Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He³". Phys. Rev. Lett. 28 (885). Cornell University. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 – via Enss & Hunklinger. indicate the existence of a new phase in solid He³ below 2.7 mK of a fundamentally different nature

[18] Jin, D.S.; Regal, C.C. (18 April 2008). "Fermi Gas Experiments". In Inguscio, M.; Ketterle, W.; Salomon, C. (eds.). Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" COURSE CLXIV Ultra-cold Fermi Gases. AMSTERDAM OXFORD TOKYO WASHINGTON DC: IOS Press & Società Italiana di Fisica. p. 3. ISBN 1607503182. Retrieved 1 April 2025. [13]-p.47:OSHEROFF, RICHARDSON, LEE (1972)

[19] Ouellet, Jonathan (14 October 2014). "The Coldest Cubic Meter in the Known Universe". arXiv:1410.1560.

[20] Allen and Misener; Kapitza (1938). Regal, C.A.; Jin, D.S. (2007). "Introduction". Experimental Realization of the BCS-BEC Crossover with a Fermi Gas of Atoms. Advances In Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics. Vol. 54. JILA: ELSEVIER. pp. 1–79. doi:10.1016/S1049-250X(06)54001-7. ISBN 978-0-12-003854-1.

[Sahai_&_Nyman,_1997-21] Sahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997). "The Boomerang Nebula: The Coolest Region of the Universe?". The Astrophysical Journal. 487 (2): L155 – L159. Bibcode:1997ApJ...487L.155S. doi:10.1086/310897. hdl:2014/22450. L156: We have measured a 9 mK upper limit (3 σ) on continuum emission at 89.2 and 145.6 GHz toward the Boomerang Nebula, which is much smaller than the negative temperatures seen in the CO and ¹³CO J 1–0 spectra, so these must result from absorption of the microwave background, requiring the excitation temperature (T_ex) to be less than 2.8 K (T_bb). 3. A TWO–SHELL MODEL In shell 2 (R₁,_o < r < R₂), T_kin < 2.8 K

[23] "Defining Moments in Australian History Earliest evidence of the boomerang in Australia". www.nma.gov.au. Lawson Crescent Acton Peninsula, Canberra: National Museum Australia. Retrieved 29 March 2025. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people should be aware this website contains images, voices and names of people who have died.

[25] Sahai, R.; Vlemmings, W. H. T.; Huggins, P.J.; Nyman, L.-Å.; Gonidakis, I. (10 November 2013). "ALMA OBSERVATIONS OF THE COLDEST PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE: THE BOOMERANG NEBULA". The Astrophysical Journal. 777 (92): 1. arXiv:1308.4360. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/777/2/92.

[26] Savvatimskii, Aleksandr I (2003). "Melting point of graphite and liquid carbon (Concerning the paper 'Experimental investigation of the thermal properties of carbon at high temperatures and moderate pressures' by E. I. Asinovskii, A. V. Kirillin, and A. V. Kostanovskii)". Physics-Uspekhi. 46 (12): 1295–1303. Bibcode:2003PhyU...46.1295S. doi:10.1070/PU2003v046n12ABEH001699. S2CID 250746507.

[27] Yang, C. C.; Li, S. (2008). "Size-Dependent Temperature-Pressure Phase Diagram of Carbon". Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 112 (5): 1423–1426. doi:10.1021/jp076049+.

[28] David R. Williams (9 May 2024). "Solar Atmosphere". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NSSDCA, Mail Code 690.1 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, MD 20771. Archived from the original on 6 Aug 2024. Retrieved 1 April 2025.

[29] Mullen, P. D.; Woods, C. N. (8 December 2015). "Determining the Suns Surface Temperature With iPhone" (PDF). Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.

[30] Abdelsalam, Tarek I.; Tian, Zhao; Robinson, Adam (1 May 2023). "Directly irradiated liquid metal film in an ultra-high temperature solar cavity receiver. Part 1: Concepts and a quasi-steady-state analysis". Solar Energy. 255: 2.1. Solar concentration. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.03.047.

[Morozov-31] Morozov, A N (2017). "Скрипкин Алексей Владимирович Calculation of the Intensity of Physical Time Fluctuations Using the Standard Solar Model and its Comparison with the Results of Experimental Measurements". IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics: Conf. Series (9th Russian National Conference on Irreversible Processes in Nature and Technics (9RNC-IPNT) 25–27 January 2017). 918 (012008). Bauman Moscow State Technical University: IOP Publishing Ltd: 3. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations during the production of entropy by irreversible processes (16): p.4 ("5830") 6. Calculation of the intensity of physical time fluctuations due to the Earth's thermal radiation (28): p.8. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/918/1/012008.

[32] Chitta, L. P.; Smitha, H. N.; Solanki, S. K. (30 April 2020). "Solar Photosphere". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Physics. Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research: Oxford University Press and the American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 1 April 2025.

[33] Correa, A. A.; Bonev, S. A.; Galli, G. (2006). "Carbon under extreme conditions: Phase boundaries and electronic properties from first-principles theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (5): 1204–1208. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1204C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510489103. PMC 1345714. PMID 16432191.

[34] Wang, Xiaofei; Scandolo, Sandro; Car, Roberto (2005). "Carbon Phase Diagram from Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 95 (18): 185701. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95r5701W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.185701. PMID 16383918. S2CID 15373344.

[35] Gerald I. Kerley and Lalit Chhabildas, "Multicomponent-Multiphase Equation of State for Carbon", Sandia National Laboratories (2001)

[36] Glosli, James; Ree, Francis (1999). "Liquid-Liquid Phase Transformation in Carbon". Physical Review Letters. 82 (23): 4659–4662. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.4659G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4659.

[37] Man Chai Chang; Ryong, Ryoo; Mu Shik Jhon (1985). "Thermodynamic properties of liquid carbon". Carbon. 23 (5): 481–485. Bibcode:1985Carbo..23..481M. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(85)90083-1.

[bestenlehner2020-38] Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; De Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J.; Maíz Apellániz, Jesus; Puls, Joachim; Vink, Jorick S. (2020). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801.

[39] Massey, Philip; Bresolin, Fabio; Kudritzki, Rolf P.; Puls, Joachim; Pauldrach, A. W. A. (2004). "The Physical Properties and Effective Temperature Scale of O-Type Stars as a Function of Metallicity. I. A Sample of 20 Stars in the Magellanic Clouds". The Astrophysical Journal. 608 (2): 1001–1027. arXiv:astro-ph/0402633. Bibcode:2004ApJ...608.1001M. doi:10.1086/420766. S2CID 119373878.

[40] "Highest man-made temperature". Guinness World Records. Jim Pattison Group. Retrieved 16 August 2015.

[science.nasa.gov-42] "Solar System Temperatures - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov. 15 February 2022. Retrieved 2023-10-20.

[43] "Whole-Body Cryotherapy FAQs". Coyne Medical. 9 December 2020. Retrieved 2023-10-11.

[44] Jestin Baby Mandumpal (2017). A Journey Through Water: A Scientific Exploration of The Most Anomalous Liquid on Earth. Bentham Science Publishers. p. 148. ISBN 9781681084237.

[45] "New study explains Antarctica's coldest temperature". National Snow and Ice Data Center. 25 June 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2021.

[rubalc-46] National Research Council (US) Committee on Toxicology (1984). Read "Emergency and Continuous Exposure Limits for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 2" at NAP.edu. doi:10.17226/690. ISBN 978-0-309-07774-3. PMID 25032441.

[47] "Northern Hemisphere: Lowest Temperature". World Weather & Climate Extremes Archive. World Meteorological Organization. 21 June 2023. Retrieved 2024-01-06.

[coldplaces-48] Weather Underground – Coldest Places on Earth

[current-49] ttp://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/ Current Results – Worlds Hottest and Coldest Places

[50] 'Snowball Earth' Scenario Plunged Our Planet Into Million-Year Winters

[vegbak-51] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Veganbaking.net – Fat and Oil Melt Point Temperatures http://www.veganbaking.net/tools/fat-and-oil-melt-point-temperatures

[52] ttp://www.weathernotebook.org/transcripts/2001/02/07.html Archived 2013-11-06 at the Wayback Machine The Weather Notebook – 40 Below

[continentasu-53] ttp://wmo.asu.edu/ ASU World Meteorological Organization – Global Weather & Climate Extremes

[54] "Temperature Everest Summit". Himalayan Wonders. 30 July 2014. Retrieved 2023-10-11. (Temperature calculated by averaging monthly temperatures given in graph)

[55] "Freezing and food safety". USDA. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.

[56] "Can the ocean freeze? Ocean water freezes at a lower temperature than freshwater". NOAA. Archived from the original on July 6, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2019.

[57] Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). Marine Geochemistry. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-34907-6.

[58] ttp://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03265.htm Archived 2015-02-26 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Dept. of Energy – Office of Science – Oils and Low Temperature

[59] ttp://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/Limnology/mixing.html Archived 2018-08-23 at the Wayback Machine College of Environmental Science and Forestry – Thermal Stratification

[60] Agence France Presse (2014-12-05). "Doctors hail miracle as toddler survives freezing conditions in pyjamas". The Guardian. Warsaw. Retrieved 2015-02-03.

[61] "2-letni Adaś wyprowadzony z hipotermii. Światowe media donoszą o cudownym dziecku z Polski". Polskie Radio. 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2015-02-03.

[62] "New record for Antarctic continent reported". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 7 February 2020.

[63] ttps://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-hottest-earths-ever-been What's the hottest Earth's ever been?

[64] Rintamäki, Hannu (2007). "Human responses to cold". Alaska Medicine. 49 (2 Suppl): 29–31. PMID 17929604.

[65] ttps://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/cold-out-why-you-need-to-wear-a-hat Harvard Health Publishing - Cold out? Why you need to wear a hat!

[Redefine-66] Harvard Health Publishing - Time to redefine normal body temperature? https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/time-to-redefine-normal-body-temperature-2020031319173

[67] ttp://people.rit.edu/hmm5837/320/project2/page4.html Archived 2013-11-12 at the Wayback Machine Rochester Institute for Technology – Random Cat Facts

[68] ttp://www.jacuzzi.com/hot-tubs/hot-tub-blog/ideal-hot-tub-water-temperature/ Archived 2017-01-26 at the Wayback Machine. Finding The Ideal Hot Tub Temperature. Jacuzzi

[69] ttp://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/clock.html Biological Rhythums

[70] "Hottest Rain on Record? Rain Falls at 119°F in Imperial, California". www.wunderground.com. Retrieved 2024-07-26.

[antiscald.com-71] "Antiscald Inc". Archived from the original on 2014-09-13. Retrieved 2014-09-12.

[GWR-72] "Highest recorded temperature". Guinness World Records. 10 July 1913. Retrieved 20 August 2018.

[73] ttp://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/chemistry-terms/boiling-info.htm HowStuffWorks – Boiling

[74] Seckbach, Joseph; et al. (2013). Polyextremophiles – life under multiple forms of stress. Dordrecht: Springer. preface. ISBN 978-94-007-6487-3.

[75] "Residential Dishwashers". National Sanitation Foundation. Retrieved on 26 May 2017. http://www.nsf.org/consumer-resources/health-and-safety-tips/home-product-appliance-tips/sanitizing-dishwasher/

[76] ttp://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/weather-and-climate.htm National Park Service – Death Valley – Weather and Climate

[77] ttp://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/research/Stars.shtml University of Hawaii – Institute for Astronomy

[aviation-fuels-78] International Fire Training Centre: Firefighter initial: aviation fuels and fuel tanks Archived 2018-02-19 at the Wayback Machine - International Fire Training Centre

[79] Draper, John William (1847). "On the production of light by heat". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 30 (202). Taylor & Francis: 345–359. doi:10.1080/14786444708647190.

[80] "Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen" (PDF). Health and Safety Executive. 2008.

[a]

[1]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[b]

[c]

[20]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[d]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[2]

[21]

v t e Orders of magnitude
Quantity	Acceleration Angular momentum Area Bit rate Charge Computing Current Data Density Energy / Energy density Entropy Force Frequency Illuminance Length Luminance Magnetic moment Magnetic field Mass Molarity Numbers Power Pressure Probability Radiation Sound pressure Specific heat capacity Speed Temperature Torque Time Voltage Volume
See also	Back-of-the-envelope calculation Fermi problem Powers of 10 and decades 10th 100th 1000000th Metric (SI) prefix Macroscopic scale Microscopic scale
Related	Astronomical system of units Earth's location in the Universe Cosmic View (1957 book) To the Moon and Beyond (1964 film) Cosmic Zoom (1968 film) Powers of Ten (1968 and 1977 films) Cosmic Voyage (1996 documentary) The Scale of the Universe (2010) Cosmic Eye (2012)
Category

Range of minimum–maximum actual–theoretical temperatures

Detailed list for 100 K to 1000K

SI multiples

See also

Notes

References

External links